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Monday, 3 December 2012

ASSIGNMENT III : DATA LOGGING


2.0       DATA LOGGING
2.1       Engage
        
Introduction
      The melting point of a solid is temperature at which it changes from a solid to a liquid. The transition between the solid and the liquid is so sharp for small samples of a pure substance that melting points can be measured to 0.1°C. The melting point of solid oxygen, for example, is -218.4°C. The temperature, at which the reverse happens, a liquid changes to solid, is referred to as the freezing point. For most substances, melting point and freezing point refer to the same temperature. However, for certain substances the transition temperatures are different.
        The melting point of water is 0°C (32°F). The freezing point of water is the same as the melting point as long as the water contains what is called a nucleating substance. But in the absence of nucleates water can supercool to -42°C before freezing. It is difficult, if not impossible, to heat a solid above its melting point because the heat that enters the solid into a liquid. It is possible, however, to cool some liquids to temperatures below their freezing points without forming a solid.  When this is done, the liquid is said to be super cooled. Melting point does not fluctuate in response to changes pressure.
        When a liquid is heated, it eventually reaches a temperature at which the vapor pressure is large enough that bubbles form inside the body of the liquid. This temperature is called the boiling point. Once the liquid starts to boil, the temperature remains constant until all of the liquid has been converted to a gas. The normal boiling point of water is 100°C. By definition, liquid boils when the vapor pressure of the gas escaping from the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by its surroundings.
        The normal boiling point of water is 100°C because this is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of water us 760mmHg, or 1 atm. Under normal conditions, when the pressure of the atmosphere is approximately 760 mmHg, water boils at 100°C. Liquids often boil in an uneven fashion. They tend to bump when there aren’t any scratches on the walls of the container where bubbles can form. Bumping is easily prevented by adding a few boiling chips to the liquid, which provide a rough surface upon which bubbles can form. When boiling chips are used, essentially all of the bubbles that rise through the solution form on the surface of these chips.
        Intermolecular forces are the relatively weak forces between molecules that hold the molecules together in the solid and liquid phase. Intramolecular forces are the forces within a molecule. These are the covalent bonds in a molecule and it is stronger than intermolecular forces.
     The electrostatic attraction between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another is the dipole force that act between polar molecules. Dipole forces are generally weaker than hydrogen bond. Both of these forces are due to dipole moment in molecules. Hydrogen bond is given a separate name from dipole forces because hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong dipole force.
        London dispersion forces are accidental-induced dipole forces. Like dipole forces, London dispersion forces are electrostatic in nature. Dipole forces are the electrostatic forces between molecules having a permanent dipole. London dispersion forces are the electrostatic forces between molecules having an accidental or induced dipole. All covalent molecules (polar and nonpolar) have London dispersion forces, but only polar molecules (those with permanent dipoles) exhibit dipole forces. As the size of a molecule increases, the strength of the London dispersion forces increases. This is because, as the electron cloud about a molecule gets larger, it is easier for the electrons to be drawn away from the nucleus. The molecule is said to be more polarizable. 
       The observable melting and boiling point of different organic molecules provides an additional illustration of the effects of noncovalent interactions. The stronger the noncovalent interactions between molecules, the more energy is required, in the form of heat, to break them part. Higher melting and boiling point signify stronger noncovalent intermolecular forces. Consider the boiling points of increasingly larger hydrocarbons. More carbons mean a greater surface area possible for hydrophobic interaction, and thus higher boiling points.  The strength of intermolecular hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole interactions is reflected in higher boiling points
      For the melting points, all of the same principles apply where the stronger intermolecular interactions result in higher melting points. Ionic compounds, as expected, usually have very high melting points due to the strength of ion-ion interactions. The presence of polar and especially hydrogen-bonding groups on organic compounds generally leads to higher melting points. Molecular shape, and the ability of a molecule to pack tightly into a crystal lattice, has a very large effect on melting points.
       When a solid melts to form a liquid, there is generally very little volume change involved (compared to the volume change in boiling).  This is because only some of the intermolecular forces in the solid are broken in the phase change.  additionally, the solid's packed structure is broken up and this contributes a large part of the energy needed to melt the material.  Packing energy is largely an entropy feature, where the individual molecules suddenly have a larger degree of freedom of motion available to them.  This increase in entropy of the system requires that the system absorb energy from the surroundings.  For the reverse phase transition, freezing, the system becomes more ordered (entropy is lowered) and energy is released to the surroundings.  Thus, while intermolecular forces do play a significant role in this process, entropy also plays a role.
         Because there is some volume change in the process, there will be a pressure dependence as well as a temperature dependence.  For example, most materials increase in volume as they melt.  If sufficient pressure is applied to the material, the molecules are forced to remain packed together even as the temperature is raised past the melting point as the lower pressure is expected, but,  if the pressure is lowered, the molecules may find themselves melting at a lower temperature as the energy needed to unpack (increasing the volume) becomes lower.
       When the molecules of a liquid break free of all intermolecular forces and separate from each other, they become gases.  This phase change is called boiling.   For this phase change, there will be a significant effect of the strength of the intermolecular forces as breaking these constitutes a very large part of the process.  However, entropy changes are also large as the volume change involved in this phase change are generally quite large.  Thus, there will be a larger effect of pressure on the equilibrium between liquid and gas.
      The boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the external pressure.  The boiling point, the liquid is actually at equilibrium and is not noticeably changing phase. 

2.2       Empower
Procedure (s) :
1.      Connect the sensor to an interface box linked to the computer as shown in figure below.
2.      Place the ice in the beaker and observed the state of ice.
3.      Place the temperature sensor in the ice.
4.      Take reading for every 30 seconds of time interval until it is boiled.
5.      Place Bunsen burner below the beaker for heating the beaker. Click the start button. Observe any transition process and the temperature they start to change.
6.      Record the data.
7.       Plot graph temperature against times.
8.      Cool the beaker to the room temperature. Record the temperature and time taken for it to cool.
9.      Record the data.

Result :         
Heating of water
Temperature, (oC)
Time taken , seconds
Phase
0
30
Solid-liquid
0
60
Solid-liquid
0
90
Solid-liquid
0
120
Solid-liquid
30
150
liquid
50
180
liquid
70
210
liquid
100
240
Liquid
100
270
Liquid-gas
100
300
Liquid-gas
100
330
Liquid-gas
100
360
Liquid-gas
100
390
Liquid-gas
100
420
Liquid-gas
100
450
Liquid-gas
100
480
Liquid-gas
120
510
vapor
142
540
vapor
160
570
vapor

Cooling of water
Temperature, oC
Time taken , minutes
89
1
84
2
81
3
80
4
80
5
80
6
80
7
80
8
80
9
80
10
80
11
79
12
77
13
77.5
14
76
15
74
16
70
17
68
18
  

The graph of temperature against time taken for cooling process

Discussion : 
·                    The melting process is a process where the solid phase changed to liquid phase under specific pressure.  The evaporation process is a process where the liquid phase is changed to gas or vapors phase.
·         The substance used is water. The melting point of water is 0 oC and temperature stay the same as the melting process occurred. When water is heated, the particles gain energy and move faster as to move away their positions and begun to vibrate around each other.
·                   The temperature during boiling process is constant which 100 oC because the boiling point of water is 100 oC. When a liquid is heated, the particles gained energy and tend to moved faster. Some particles in water, which have enough energy to escape into air to from vapor and this process is known as evaporation.
·         During solid phase, the water molecules are vibrated around the point and not free to move. It is expand, but, in a small value when heat is supplied.  This is due to the strong force between the molecules. The energy in the particles is low.
·                    During liquid phase, the water molecules moved in random arrangement but still in fairly stick together. The energy in the molecules is moderate. During gas phase, the water molecules moved in fast and randomly. The energy in the particles in very high.  During the cooling process, the particles loss of energy and they came closer together. As they collide, they will stick together to form droplets forming a liquid. During this process, energy in particles is loss due to less energy is needed as they are cooling.

2.3       Enhance
The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as these conditions change to favor their existence. For example, solid transitions to liquid with an increase in temperature which is in melting process. Liquid is transited to gases of molecule in either boiling or vaporization process
Boiling
 


Nomenclature for the different phase transitions.

A state of matter is also characterized by phase transitions. A phase transition indicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change in properties. A distinct state of matter can be defined as any set of states distinguished from any other set of states by a phase transition.
Now, in this enhance, this process can be applied to daily life. There are many examples that related to transitions process such as melting, freezing, boiling, condensation, steaming and others.
2.3.1    Application in daily life
2.3.1.1 Boiling for water sterilization
Boiling is the rapid vaporization of liquid, which occurs when liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding environmental pressure.
Boiling can be used as a method of water purification but is only advocated as an emergency water treatment method. As the water is boiled in high temperature, it is most effective in killing or inactivating most bacteria, viruses, pathogens and nearly all microorganisms. Sterilization is any process that removes and eliminates all forms of microbial life, including fungi, bacteria, viruses and others. Boiling water also can kill the vegetative stage of all common microbes.
 

 Boiling water to sterilize it.

According to the Wilderness Medical Society, water temperatures above 160°F (70°C) kill all pathogens within 30 minutes and above 185°F (85°C) within a few minutes. So in the time it takes for the water to reach the boiling point (212°F or 100°C) from 160°F (70°C), all pathogens will be killed, even at high altitude. For safety, let the water boil rapidly for one minute, especially at higher altitudes since water boils at a lower temperature.
Boiling water is the preferred method of purification because disease-causing- microorganisms cannot survive the intense heat. Pour the water back and forth from one clean container to another to improve the taste. Then, add a pinch of salt because it also may helps in killing microorganisms.
2.3.1.2 Steam Turbine
A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. The turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator.
      A rotor of modern steam turbine, used in a power plant.
The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process. In the United States (1996), about 90% of all electricity generation is by use of steam turbines.
The steam turbine continues to be a major factor in generating electric power throughout the world. As mentioned earlier, there are basically three stages of matter which is solid, liquid and gas. Each stage is held together by a different level of molecular force. With the ability of water, gaseous steam takes up space due to its molecules being furthest apart.
However, when enough pressure is applied to steam, an amazing process happens. The molecules are forced together to the point that the water becomes more like a liquid again, while retaining the properties of gases. In this point, it will become a supercritical fluid.
In steam turbine, water is actually heated to such a high pressure that boiling does not even occur. As a result, the supercritical steam provides excellent energy efficiency. With the help of high pressure, the steam turbine can operates too much higher speeds.

3.0       CONCLUSION
            Data loggers help in better understanding of scientific experimentation. Other than that, the used of data logger for determine the state of matter can get specific and accurate data reading that might not be accurate due to parallax error when it is done manually.

REFERENCE:
Retrieved from http://www.onsetcomp.com/ on 7 November 2012
Retrieved from http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/atoms/states.html on 15 November 2012







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